Childhood multiple risk factor exposure exceeds the adverse developmental impacts of singular exposures. Multiple risk factor exposure may also explain why sociodemographic variables (e.g., poverty) can have adverse consequences. Most research on multiple risk factor exposure has relied upon cumulative risk (CR) as the measure of multiple risk. CR is constructed by dichotomizing each risk factor exposure (0 = no risk; 1 = risk) and then summing the dichotomous scores. Despite its widespread use in developmental psychology and elsewhere, CR has several shortcomings: Risk is designated arbitrarily; data on risk intensity are lost; and the index is additive, precluding the possibility of statistical interactions between risk factors. On the other hand, theoretically more compelling multiple risk metrics prove untenable because of low statistical power, extreme higher order interaction terms, low robustness, and collinearity among risk factors. CR multiple risk metrics are parsimonious, are statistically sensitive even with small samples, and make no assumptions about the relative strengths of multiple risk factors or their collinearity. CR also fits well with underlying theoretical models (e.g., Bronfenbrenner's, 1979, bioecological model; McEwen's, 1998, allostasis model of chronic stress; and Ellis, Figueredo, Brumbach, & Schlomer's, 2009, developmental evolutionary theory) concerning why multiple risk factor exposure is more harmful than singular risk exposure. We review the child CR literature, comparing CR to alternative multiple risk measurement models. We also discuss strengths and weaknesses of developmental CR research, offering analytic and theoretical suggestions to strengthen this growing area of scholarship. Finally, we highlight intervention and policy implications of CR and child development research and theory.

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Academic achievement is a known predictor of career trajectory and future earnings. Thus, a great deal of research has been devoted to understanding the variables that impact academic achievement. The purpose of the current study is to extend existing scholarly work by examining the predictive power of both cognitive and noncognitive variables on first-year academic achievement of students at a military college. We focus on the concepts of grit and person-environment (P-E) fit as our key noncognitive predictors of success. We investigate if grit affects academic achievement and if it operates differently for men and women. Given the unique educational setting of our study, we capture a P-E fit by examining whether a student is a recipient of an ROTC scholarship. Our empirical results suggest that grit has a positive effect on college grade point average for male participants but not a significant effect on female participants. Furthermore, we find that ROTC scholarships, as a proxy for fit, positively predict first-year academic achievement. These findings have policy implications for admissions and financial aid offices as well as teachers and support staff.

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Background: The 4-week-long College Orientation Workshop (COW) is an experiential education program that combines physical and mental challenges with classroom instruction to promote self-confidence, self-control, wellness, and life success in promising male youth facing challenges to reaching their full potential. Purpose: This was an exploratory study to assess whether young men who completed the program manifested psychological and/or physical changes. Methodology/Approach: Sixteen young men were assessed at the beginning and end of the program. Physical measures included fitness test scores (pull-ups, sit-ups, push-ups, 1.5 mile run time), resting blood pressure, and pulse rate. Psychological variables included positive and negative affect, life satisfaction, self-esteem, self-efficacy, perceived control, self-control, impulsivity, social support, and subjective socioeconomic status. Findings/Conclusions: From pre- to post-COW, there were significant increases in self-esteem, positive affect, and sit-ups completed as well as significant decreases in run times, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate. Several nonsignificant trends were also detected. Associations of psychological variables with fitness/health measures suggest that changes in the latter may be partly due to changes in the former. Implications: The COW Program may be an effective experiential education program. Follow-up studies with program participants are currently underway to determine longer term outcomes.

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